Computer controlled systems (CCS)

An analog-to-digital converter is an electronic circuit that converts continuous signals to discrete digital (binary) numbers. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Characteristics: resolution, scaling, conversion time, sampling frequency, digitizing errors, sample and hold.
An operational amplifier, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output. The output of the op-amp is controlled by negative feedback.
An ADC has several sources of errors. Quantization error and (assuming the ADC is intended to be linear) non-linearity is intrinsic to any analog-to-digital conversion. There is also a so-called aperture error which is due to a clock jitter and is revealed when digitizing a signal (not a single value).
These errors are measured in a unit called the LSB, which is an abbreviation for least significant bit. Of an 12bit ADC, an error of one LSB is 1/4096 of the full signal range, or about 0.0244%.
Quantization error
Main article: Quantization noise
Quantization error is due to the finite resolution of the ADC, and is an unavoidable imperfection in all types of ADC. The magnitude of the quantization error at the sampling instant is between zero and half of one LSB.
In the general case, the original signal is much larger than one LSB. At lower levels the quantizing error becomes dependent of the input signal. And the result is distortion. This distortion is created after the anti-aliasing filter, and if these distortions are above 1/2 the sample rate they will alias back into the audio band..
Non-linearity
All ADCs suffer from non-linearity errors caused by their physical imperfections, causing their output to deviate from a linear function (or some other function, in the case of a deliberately non-linear ADC) of their input. These errors can sometimes be mitigated by calibration, or prevented by testing.
5. What is the typical throughput rate of...

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