Anglijos istorija

Prehistory English scientist ch.Darvin said that the creation is ongoing and that continuous to this day. During the Paleolithic age,about 500.000years ago in Europe, men used stones that were naturally suited for the work. Later, around 100.000 years ago, Neandethal man appeared and began to make flake tools and spears with flint tips. Around 40.000 BC the bones of animals were used as tools, weapons and ornamental objects. Britain was not yet an island.The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age began around 8 or 9 000 years ago following the retreat of the glaciers of last great ice age. Around 5000 or 6000 BC.Britain was cut of from the mainland and became an island. The microliths, tiny flint were used for arrow heads. But man in britain still lived by hunting game. The Neolithic or New Stone Age began around 3500 BC in Britain. The beggining of agriculture.Ground stone axes and polished implements.Pottery and barrows large mound graves with the entire families in them. People first settle down and evidence of trade.Another neolithic people were the Megalith people or Great Stone People, because their graves were marked huge slabs.Bronze(melting cupper and tin)marks the Bronze Age, which began around 2400 BC in Britain. Beaker Folk(bronze melters) came to Britain from the Low Countries and the middle Rhine.They burried their deads in round barrows, often with the sword or dagger. Beaker Folk introduced barley(kind of grain)to Britain.Stonehenges first build around 3000 Bc. Centres of political and religious activity at the time. A group of huge stone slabs placed in concentric circles. These stonehenges gave way to a new farming culture. Farmers used natural waste products to fertilize.Hillforts and villages containing many families. Celts During the centuries 700-400 BC arrived Celts.They brought iron for weapons and axes. Groups of tribes that spoke related Indo-European languages.They also build hillforts to.Another Celtic group, the Belgae, arrived around 200 BC.The first came in 75 BC. They were fleeing because of the Germanic and Roman invasionsof Gaul. They established the first towns in England and struck coins, which they have learned from Romans in Gaul.They brought plough. Romans Romans decided to conquer Britain because 1.The British Celts were helping the Celts of Gaul against the Romans with food and places to hide.2.Britain was a very productive land.With the invasions of Julius Ceasar in 55 and 54 BC, britain enters history for the first time. He met Belgic tribes in Britain.Belgic tribes had nobility,slaves and a priestly class, the Druids.Julius Ceasar left without conquering and it was not until almost 100 years later, in AD 43, under the imperior Claudius. The Romans were very organised, thats way they succeded.Rome ruled in the southern part of Britain,Wales,Chester in the north.They also conquered Scotland but didn’t have enough men to hold it, so they build the Hadrian’s wall between AD 122 and AD 128.Britain became a Roman province with privileged municipalities that wereself-governing:York,Lincoln, Gloucester, Colchester and Verulamium.The presence of the Roman army created a large demand for many goods. Romans build roads to transport legions,goods and information quickly. Romans founded many towns,London.Many towns were originally Roman army camps.They ruled Britain for almost 400 years.They occupied south and east, because it was the easyest areas to conquer for all the invaders. Goths,Franks and Huns began attacking Gaul and the Romans had to begun withdrawing their legions from Britain.Variuos tribes began to conduce raids;Angles, Saxons and Jutes. A-S.The first northern tribes A-S were variors from Germany.After plundering, they brought their families.It was essential to avenge any wrong committed against a family member.One of the legal institutions of the A-S was the wergild(man-payment) which was the money that the murderer payed to the victim’s family to free the murderer from the vengeance of the victim’s family.The gods of the A-S.before they became Christians, there those of Germanic mythology:Tiw,Woden and Thor and the goddess Freya, Tuesday, Wednesday,Thursday and Friday. Country was divided up into shires.The shires were governed by alderman,shire-reeve and a bishop. Another Saxon institution was the King’s Council known as the ‘Witan’(church man and senior warriors).The ancestor of parlament. A-S changed the way the land was farmed.The land around each village was divided up into three sections. Each section was divided up into narrow strips suitable for the Saxon plough.One of three main sections was used for spring crops,the second for autumn crops and the last was left fallow. Early Christianity The Celtic church continued after the Romans left and continued to send out missionaries.In 423 St.Patrick began convert the Irish.St.Columba went all over Scotland,converting the Picts.A-S became domonant in Britain.Britain was developed into seven different kingdoms:East Anglia,Essex(East Saxons),Kent,Mercia,Northumbria,Sussex(South Saxons),and Wessex (West Saxons).In 597 Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk,Augustine,to England to bring Christianity back to England.Augustine and his monks had a little success with the common people while the Irish missionaries had a great success traveling on foot and preaching.The Celtic church and the Roman church came into conflict.Before the century was over most of England was Christian.The newly foubded monasteries became centers of learning.Much of what we know of this period of English history comes from Bede’s history,which modern archaeology has proven to be reliable.churches with their ministers attracted tradesmen,craftsmen and servants;small comunities began to form-these are the first English towns.The A-S kingdoms benefited from the economic growtf around the various monasteries. The Vikings All the kingdoms of England fought for control of the island.Under the kings of Wessex England was finaly united into one kingdom.The first king was Egbert.This time England was invaded by tribes from Scandinavia called Vikings or Danes.They were able to conquer East Anglia and Northumbria,Mercia had to pay a kind ransom,called ‘Danegeld’.Only Wessex resisted. The success of Wessex lasted until the end of the tenth century when the Danes once again attacked.king Ethelred was not able to resist.In 1016 Ethelred’s son Edmund signed a treaty with the Danes that gave all of England but Wessex to the Danes.Then Edmund died shortly thereafter,Canute the Danish king became king of all England.Canute had incorporated England into his Nordic Empire.After Canute’s death in 1042 the Empire went to pieces. a king The Normans The Normans(another northern tribe) were the next invaders of England.They came from from France but were originally Vikings themselves.The Norman system of power was based on territory.When William Duke of Normandy conquered England, he gave out this land to his followers with the agreement that they perform precise services for him.These men were his ‘vassals’.This system is now referred to as feudalism.William I was a king Of England,but in his role as Duke of Normandy he was the vassal of the king of France.William I led the last successful invasion of England in history.After the death of Canute an A-S king,Edward the Confessor became king of an independent England.After Edwards death, Harold, the son of Godwin, became the king of England.Harold had to fight against two armies at the same time.He defeated his brother Tostig and the king of Norway,Harald Hardrada, but not the William’s I army.Anybody who wanted anything from an official-position or land or simply the right to get married-had to pay the king.There were tenants-in-chief,who were expected to give the king military aid and sometimes financial aid.They also advised the king.They formed the consilium or curia,which is the beginning of many of England’s political institutions. The Domesday Survey Everything was recorded in the Domesday Book(the book in which the results of the survey were recorded),how many acres of land,how many sheep,how many oxen,how many ploughs,how many villeins(the peasants without rights in the feudal world)and how many priests and churches.The king who was the lord of this entire system made his presence felt by travelling from one of his realm to the other.The commanders of the armies were household knights, serving the king in his travelling household. HenryII the first of the plantagenets After William the Conquer died in 1087, he was succeded by his son William Rufus.He was killed.His brother Henry I became king in 1100 and ruled until 1135.Upon his death there was a great conflict as to who would succed Henry-Matilda,Henry'’ daughter or Stephen,Matilda'’ cousin. Finally in 1154 Henry II, Matolda's son,became king.he was Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, a foreign king.He brought the best European learning of the day,which included the jurisprudence.He was a vassal of the King of France.England was the largest province of the great Angevin Empire, that stretched from Scotland to the Pyrenees. Early courts Henry II gave greater pover to the kings courts and took away pover from the barons and sheriffs.These royal judges began to meet so frequently around the country that a ‘common law’ for the entire country began to develop.The first jurymen did not judge the merits of a person’s case during a trial but were themselves witnesses to the fact.Another type of jury was the jury of presentment or accusation.They were witnesses who testified before the king’s judge about the reputation of the accused.Ordeal by hot iron.In 1215 Pope Innocent III forbade it.Henry II wished to make greater control over the church.This created the possibilyty for much confusion and much tension between the church and the norman king.Thomas A Becket was an important person within the church and also a friend of the king.When he had to choose between the king or the church, he chose the church.The king became angry and killed him. Shortly Becket was made a saint. Richard I and the first Crusade Richard was more interested in fighting than in ruling .He wanted to participate in the great Crusades to drive out the Turks from the Holy Land.The great christian power in East was the Byzantine Empire.In 1071 the Byzantine army suffered a loss against the Turks at Melasgird.Pope Urban received the envoys of Alexius at Piacenza and in 1095 at Clermont held another great council in which he organized his holy war against the Moslems.This crusade is called ’people’s crusade’.Great groups of leaderless people went towards the East.They looted and killed.In 1096 they were completely exterminated by Turks.After ‘people’s crusade’ was another called the First Crusade.On 15 July 1097 the Normans conquered Jerusalem.The killing was awful.The Moslem leader Saladin called for a crusade(Second Crusade) against the christians who had previosly called for a crusade against him(Third Crusade).The Third was organized by Emperor Frederic I, the King of France and Richard the Lion-hearted of England.They failed to retake Jerusalem for the Christians. Hubert Welter was the chief official of an English king that spent practicaly no time in England at all.He granted charters to many towns and extented the power of the king circumventing the powers of the great barons. King John and Magna Carta John was not able to handle the difficult continental politics and bit by bit he lost his possessions.In 1204 he lost Normandy.Having lost everything he became the first truly English king. Then the Pope chose Stephen Langton to be the Archbishop of Canterbury, king John refused the new Archbishop enter the country.The Pope asked the king of France to invade England and depose John.With two such strong enemies John had to give up.In 1214 John tried to recapture Normandy but met defeat.A group of barons went to London to demand changes from John.On 15 June 1215 at Runnymede John signed Magna Carta.M.G is seen as the beginning of political liberty in England.M.G was a document by which the barons bound John to respect certain feudal laws and customs.The king couldn’t impose any extraordinary ‘scutage or aid’(kind of taxes) unless by common council of kingdom(assembly of barons).No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or be send out of the country or his property illegaly taken except by the lawful judgment of his peers or/and the law of the land.Other articles gave the barons the right to force the king to keep his promises.The barons were forced to make alliance with the other classes to enlarge their power.M.G marks the beginning of the end of English feudalism. The beginnings of Parlament Henry III increased the anger of barons with depleting the English treasury.In 1258 he was deposed and the Earl of Leicester Simon de Montfort took over.In 1265 Henry’s son Edward gathered around him the king’s forces.Montfort was killed.Edward became king.English parlament was born in this period.Parlament grew naturally from the existing feudal institution, the Royal Curia.Monfort decided to call up the elected knights collectively, together with two representatives of each of the chartered boroughs. Edward I continued this practiceof calling up collectively the knights and burghers because it made it easyer to discover the taxable capacity of each district and to keep in touch with his kingdom at large.The knights, burghers and other freemen is the origin of the House of Commons.The most important result of calling together all the elected knights and burghers was to mold them into a group capable of resisting the lords and the king. History of the English language Celtic language.The only linguistic heritage from this period is in place names,especialy with the end –chester(Manchester)which means fortress.Old English is a mixture of Germanic dialects,called Anglo-Saxon.In about 597 A.D when the first Christian missionaries led by the monk Augustine came to Canterbury. With the new religion came also a large vocabulary derived from Latin and Greek.In 793 A.D the first Viking attack on Britain.The Viking and the Anglo-Saxons would have had few communication problems, their languages were very similar.Two languages mingled.”Mother”, ”father” , ”house” both used.Vikings used specific Old Norse words:”by” as in Grimsby,”thorpe”,”window”,”law”, ”sky”, ”give”, ”gift”, ”skin”.Near synonyms in Old Norse and Old English were “hide and skin”,”wish and want”,”craft and skill”. Then king Harold died, he was the last English-speaking king for the 300 years.The victor,Duke William of Normandy, spoke only French.French became a language of the royal court and of the nobility.English became a languaage of conquered people of peasants and workers. Law ,religion, science and literature were in French or Latin.To the Old Norse/English synonyms were added new French/Latin.Original French/English synonyms required new meanings pork/pig, mutton/sheep,beef/cow.The French words named the dishes and English named the living animals.In the course of the XIV century,English slowly regained its old status. Speaking English became a matter of patriotic pride.The writings of Geoffrey Chaucer are by many considered to be the “birth” of modern english.English is the most widely spoken language.Half of the world’s books are written in English.English has acquired the largest vocabulary. London is t capita! of England.of Great Briton&of t United Kingdom.It's t largest town in Europe&one of t oldest towns in t world T oldest part of L is called City.T most important L lirms&banks have their offices there.But on weekends t City is almost dead! City&t West End r t heart of L.L has many bridges over t Thames,more than20,but t most interesting of them all is t Tower Bridge near Tower of L.It's an old castle with high walls.high Towers,small windows&large gardens Once it was a royal residences state prison.L is t most important industrial centre in Britain T British Museum is t largest&richest museum in t world.Madame Tussaud's is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax modeis of famous people of veslerdav&todav.Trafalgar Square is named after t battle of Trafalgar in!805.1n t centre of t square there is a tall column with t statue of Admiral Nelson on lop .Big Ben is t big clock on t tower of t palace of Westminster Westminster ^bbey is one of t oldest buildings in L&one of t most important religious centres in country./T parks have been called t"lungs"of L.They give londoners t opportunity to walk in t greeruo have picnics.to go horse-riding&all this without leaving t city .Hyde park is I largest&finest of L parks It's famous for its Speakers' Corner where different kinds of meetings take place/T main transport is t undergtound.it's called Tube.Buckinaam Palace is 1 official L residence of t Queen&t royal family.When t queen is at home t Royal Flag flies on top .Piccadilly Circus is t centre of Us entertainment world.It's area there r many theatres.cinemas.restaurantsdiscos,nightclubs. Ireland,a]so known as Ulster.is still a pan of tUK.It's made up of six countries. One third oft population lives in&around t capital Belfast, which is also : most important part industrial&commercial centre. In I t population is divided into2groups't protestams&t catholics Irish is t first officially recognized Ing.English is recogiuzed as I's second lngjs spoken by everyone FjmilyMarriage is legal at age!6,but people marry in their early 10 mid-20s.Traditionally women haven't worked outside t home exept to help on t family farm.EatingAs an agricultural country,! produces many fresh vegetables.Holida^sT Irish celebrate Saint Patrick's Day onlTMarch.is a national holiday.They canine a arc;,- ci olhes. Ed ucalionParei" ' have t freedom to provide for t education of their children at home.in private schoolsjn public Ss.There r7universiti es. 1 n frastru cturg I is headed by a president who serves a7year lerm/I has a strong cultural tradition: songs, dances.literature&festivals keep t tradition alive. USAToday t United States of America,commonly called United States or simply Americans a federal republic comprising5 (Mates.English is t predominant Ing oft US&is spoken by most oft population. American English sometimes differs from British English in spelling,pronunciation,punctuation&even meaning in some eases.FamilyAlthough many couples choose to live together before or instead of marriage,! marriage rate is one of the highest in Western socjeries-but the divorce rate is one of t world's highest.The average age for marriage is26for men&24for women.One out of every3children is born to parents who aren't married to each other.Eating Americans eat a lot of fast food such as hamburgers, pizza&fhed chicken. SportsBasketball,American football.baseballiliice hockey r t most popular sports.Gther leisure activities include going to t cinema, at ten ding co ncerts&traveling .Economy tUS has t largest economy in t world .Education is free&compulsory for lOyears.until t age ofl6 Some people pay for their children to attend private schools.Each state has responsibility for its own educational system. AboutGQpercent of students finish their education with grade!2,at age!7&go to universities, college .technical training. /T US has many rivers:! Misisipi is one of t world's greatest rivers;has thousands of lakes;has a large number of cities with more than a million people :NY,Chicago, Los Angeles.T population of t US at present time is over215mln.people.Negroes form 10,5percent of t population. HolidayT fourth of July is t American nation's birth day. Independences Day.Thanksgiving Day. Wales Wales, orCymru inWelsh,is a country in t west of GB It's mainly a mountainous land with mainly agricultural economy&an industrial&coal-mining area in t south. T landscape is beauriful&many English people move toWales when they retire.attracted by t mild climate of t coast.Cardiff.a large city in t south,was chosen as capital of wales mainly because of its size.LngWelsh is one of Europe's oldest languages.English is spoken nearly everywhere in Wales.RamilyTraditionaJly.Welsh families have been close&grandparents sometimes living in t same house.T nominal head of the household is t father,but t mother plays an equally important role in family affairs.Many women now work outside t home. Sin de-parent families r becoming more common&divorce is increasing. Eatingthere r some traditional Welsh dishes such as cawl (a soup made with vegetables, particularly leeLsl ftecreationThe national sport is Rugby known as "football" Watching television is one of t main recreational activities.There r cinsmas&arts centers in most large towns. Holidays Wales has t same national holidays as England, includingNewYear'sDay, Easter.MayDay.t spring& summer bank holidays,ChristmasDay&BoxingDay(26 December) BD comes from t old British tradition .It's now a day for relaxing&visiting friends.Education_tE system is similar to England'S.Welsh is used as t primary language of instruction in some schools,but in most English is t official laneuage&Wclsh is taught as a subject.Schooling is free and compulsory for 11 years. Scotlandis t country in t north ofGB.A lot of places inS r a naturalparadise still untouched by man.S's landscape is very attractive with wild mountains&deep lakes T capital is Edinburgh Glasgow is t industrial capital ofS.The currency is the pound sterling.T typical products ofS r whisky,salmon,tartans Golf is t Scotish national sport Many people play golf.S is also famous for its Sshing.English is t official Ing.also many terms use fromCeltic Ing.Familv People usually marry in their middle to lateZOs.Many couples live together before or instead of rnarriage.Marriage customs r much t same as elsewhere in t UK.EalingT national dish is haggis.which is made from ground sheep.T national drink is whiskey.Hoh days S's national holidays r slightly different from those in England & Wales .They includeNewYear' sDay.GoodFriday,May Day.SpringBankHoliday&ChristmasDay. Education is free&compulsory for9years.S's school system differs from that of other parts of t UK&t examinations taken during t last stage of secondary education arn't t same as in England^Wales. Both state schools&private(cal]ed public)schools exist inS.There r various vocational schools, 13 universities. UK United Kingdom occupies t greater part of t British Isles inNorthernEurope.T UKconsist ofGB&Northem Ireland.GBis made up of3countries:England, Scotland, Wai es.English is spoken everywhere.Each country of t UK is divided into countries'England-46countries.Capital London. Scot lanrl-3 3 c, Edinburgh. Wales-13, Cardiff. Northern Ireland -6, Belfast. Each country includes several small island.T most famous £ river is Thames. T highest mountain isBenNevis. Music UK.For t Iast40years,British musicians have made their voices heard across t world.lt began in t early!960s with t Beatles.They writing&singing their own music&refiising to follow t traditional music business procedures.T Kings,! Yardbird&t Rolling Stones all used Sixties pop as an oportunity to write about t times they where living in In t!980s technology&computcrs were ebraced by British musicians to influence! growth of techno&house music Today britain is t World's most commercialy succesful music nation It generates more album sales than any other country.T 1990s saw huge earnings fromTakeThat,East 17&SpiceGirls.DuringISmonths in t mid!990s,t SpiceGirls became t most successful group in t world.British music talent has influenced t US scene in other ways.British record producers working with A-merican artist,such as Dave Matthews.Madona.It's a continuous programe of cultural exchange which has enriched both countries&their cultures. Education Amencan system of S E differs from t system in other countries There r state public(free) Ss.private elementary Ss&private secondarySs(free-paying) Each state has its own system of public SsEiementaryE begins at t age of&7pm.A typical evening meal is a meat dish with vegetables&a desert.T most important meal oft week ist Sunday dinner, which is usualy eaten atlpm.T traditional Sunday dish used to be roast beef or chicken.On Sunday evening people have supper or high tea. TraditionsUSA Fire works, picnics&outdoor barbecues rt hallmarks of Fourth of July celebrations. .Also known as Independence Day.On the fourthThursday oiNovember, Americans celebrateThanksgiving These days is celebrated with family and friends.T Christmas season often begins t day after Thanksgiving.Many people take this day off work to begin their Christmas shop ping. Through out the month of December, people traditionally decorate their homes with a Christmas tree,colorful lights.They send greeting cards to their friends and family.lisien to Christmas songs&shop for gifts On Christmas children traditionally hang stockings by the fireplace for Santa Claus.who they believe will come down t chimney during t night&leave presents for them.On Christmas Day Christians go to church/GB T most important festival oft year is Christmas. Traditionaly at this time oft year houses a brightly decorated. On ChEve children hang up their stockings over t fireplace or at t end oft bed&wait for t Father Ch to fill them t presents.Almost every town in Britain has a Ch tree.in London,Trafalgar Square.a huge Ch tree is decorated every year.On Ch eve childrer& adults go from house singing carols at t doors.Sweets r given to t children&drinks offered to t adults.T traditional Ch dinner includes roast turkey or goose&Ch puding.a rich cake,eggs,sugar.T day after Ch is a national holiday called Boxing Day after t tradition of giving Ch boxes to milkmen, postmen. Music British music has spread all over t world Singers&musicians r t new idols of thousands of young people,who try to copy them in t way they dress,walk,Cut their hair&even in t way they sing.T names pop.rock music r well known to everybody&they r of English origin.Among t most popular English pop&rock stars r T Beatles.T Rolling Stones,T Pink Floyd.David Bowie&many other famous names.T4boys from Liverpool,known to everybody as t Beatles,gave t start to English pop music They were a symbol for t young generation of t'60s They writing&singing their own music&refusing to follow t traditional music business procedures T members oft group were John Lenon,Paul McCartney,George Harison.Ringo Star With their records&their concerts.they became millionaires. In 19 TOthey split up&each member continued playing seperately but still successfully. Tod ay britain is t World's most commercialy succesrul music nation.lt generates more album sales than any other country.Tl 990s saw huge earnings fromTakeThat,East 17&SpiceGirls.DuringISmonths in t mid!990s,t SpiceGirls became t most successful group in t world.Bmish music talenl has influenced t US scene in other ways.British record producers working with American artist.such as Dave Matt hews.Madona. It's a continuous programe of cultural exchange which has enriched both countries&their cultures.

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