Modals functions

• She could swim before she could walk.
• His car broke down but he was able to repair it.
• She could have paid by credit card but she preferred to use cash.
• We use can to talk about things that are generally possible:
• Health insurance can be very expensive.
• We commonly use may in scientific and academic English:
• Over-prescribing of antibiotics may lead to undesirable side effects.
• In other cases we use may/might/could
• Mark isn’t home yet. He may/might/could be working in the office.
Past possibility
• We use could to talk about general possibility in the past:
• Teachers could be very strict at my old school.
• We use might in the same way in scientific and academic English:
• Wealthy Victorian families might employ as many as a dozen servants.
• We use could/may/might to talk about specific past possibilities:
• John could have posted the letter.
Certainty/logical assumptions
• In the affirmative we use must (have to is possible to add emphasis)
• This must be the place-it’s the only restaurant in the street.
• If we strongly believe that something is NOT true we use can’t (couldn’t is also possible)
• He can’t be the senior doctor-he’s far too young.
Obligation
• We usually express obligation with must or have to:
• I must get up earlier in the mornings (inner obligation)
• Everyone has to register their name (outer obligation)
• !We use have to when it is grammatically impossible to use must:
• Having to listen to garage music all evening is my idea of misery!
• Mild obligation can be...

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