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Semantic functions of English postverbs

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ŠIAULIAI UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES ENGLISH PHILOLOGY DEPARTMENT SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH POSTVERBS Course Paper Šiauliai 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3 1. Linguistic Status of English Phrasal Verbs 5 2. Phrasal Verbs as Derivational Units 7 3. Functions of English Postverbs in the Plane of the Regular Change of Meaning 8 3.1. Postverbs’ Functions in the Plane of Aspectuality 8 3.1.1. Terminativeness/Durativeness 9 3.1.2. Modes of Action 11 3.2. Postverbs’ Functions in the Plane of the Changing of the Lexical Meaning of the Verb 14 4. Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs 16 Conclusions 18 Bibliography 19 Dictionaries 21 INTRODUCTION The object of this work is English postverbs and their semantic functions in the plane of the regular and irregular change of the lexical meaning of the verb. In this paper the second element of the structures, labelled as “phrasal verbs” in the English language, such as: blow up, dress out, cry out, is considered as the postverb, which acts as a derivational mean and is different form the homonymous prepositions and adverbs. It is expedient to say, that phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called “multi-word verbs”. Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a verb like pick up, turn up, or get on with. For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short “phrase” – which is why these verbs are often all called “phrasal verbs”. The postverb makes one semantic whole with the verb, often changing both lexical meaning of the verb and the aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of the derivatives. Aspectual classes are a classification of verbs with respect to their aspectual properties, dating back to an Aristotelian classification of situations. The most popular aspectual classes are those proposed in Vendler (1967): States, Activities (unbounded processes), Accomplishments (bounded processes), and Activities (unbounded processes): She is in danger. He loves potatoes. Socrates is mortal (States); She drove him safely. John walked miles and miles (Activities); She ate a sandwich. John walked home. (Accomplishments); He won the race. She reached the top. (Achievements). Linguistically, the classification is often used for the analysis of aspect. However, H. J. Verkuyl argues that aspectual classes have no explanatory function in the analysis of aspect. For him, the opposition between States and Activities on the one hand and Accomplishments and Achievement on the other hand is considered central. Also known as the contrast between durative/atelic aspect versus terminative/telic aspect. Derivation of verbs by the addition of postverbs is a specific feature of the English language. In other Indo-European languages there exist no postverbs acting as derivational means, except Swedish, which has postfixes treated equivalent to the English postverbs, e.g.: slita ut – wear out, dricka upp – drink up. According to I. Klijunaite (2000:37), derivation of verbs with the postverb ‘”has a number of common features with other ways of verbal derivation, especially with prefixation: according to their function English postverbs are identical to Indoeuropean prefixes, e.g. go out – Russ. выйти, Lith. išeiti, Germ. zufrieren, Laten congelare. The purpose of the research is to investigate the variety of functions of English postverbs on the plane of the semantic level. We will focus on the analysis of verbs with postverbs form the point of view of the change of lexical meaning of verbs in connection with terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action. Further more, we will deal with the idiomatizaion of Vpv-s’ lexical meaning. Material, used in this work, is data collected from dictionaries, different grammar books and Internet. Verbs, used as examples gave been selected from Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (1975), Longman dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (1986), Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1983), Virtual Oxford Paperback Dictionary and Thesaurus and Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, 10th Edition. As regards the structure of the work, it consists of four major parts. The first part concerns the theoretical background of linguistic status of verbs with postverbs. It deals with the linguistic status of the postverb, in connection with derivation of English verb. In the second part the derivational aspect of English postverbs is presented. The third part examines the functions of English postverbs in the plane of the regular change of meaning. This section is subdivided into postverbs’ functions in the plane of aspectiality (terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action) and the changing of the lexical meaning of the verb. The final part deals with the irregular change of meaning - idiomatization. The propositions of the research will be summarized in the conclusions. 1. LINGUISTIC STATUS OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS In this section the attention will be paid to the problem of the linguistic status of verbs with the postverbs (further Vpv), which have been drawing linguists’ attention for a long time. However, many problems, connected usually to the complex structure of phrasal verbs constructions also “ the diversity of their functions and polysemy as well as complicated interlacing of numerous morphological, syntactical, lexical and word building phenomenon in them” (Klijunaite, 2000:4) are still on the focus of discussion. For example, the linguistic status of verbs with postverbs, traditionally labelled as “phrasal verbs”, in connection with “terms” of part of speech is argued as well. The problem causes their second structure component, e.g. away, dawn, out, up, which can be treated in various ways: as a particle, postpositive, poslelog, preposition, postverb, adverbial particle, etc. According to R. Hiltunen (1983:376) “Even today the analytical phrasal constructions are a problem not only to learners of English as a foreign language but also to those trying to describe them linguistically”. The difficulty of treating the second element of the Vpv in different ways has been determined by two factors: 1) postverbs, prepositions and adverbs are phonemically identical in a postverbal position, cf.: The patient saw the week out (postverb); I saw him out (of) the window (preposition); I saw him out there (adverb). 2) there is no clear distinction between classes of elements since all of them have originated from adverbs with locative meaning, e.g. up ‘to or in an upright direction’ or out ‘outside from the inside’. For these reasons, one of the most important tasks is to differentiate postverbs (bust up ‘to damage, destroy, spoil’) from homonymous adverbs (eat out ‘to eat in a restaurant instead of at home’) and prepositions (run up the tree). There are distinguished four types of verbal combinations with the homonymous second element, in which the unambiguous functional diversity of the elements like in, out, up, off is notable: 1) verb + adverb combinations like be in ‘to be at home or in one’s place of work’, sleep out ‘to sleep out of doors’. Here both of the components, e.g. sleep and out, retain their independence, and the meaning of the whole is derived from the meanings of the component parts; 2) verb + postverb units of the type bust up ‘to damage, destroy, spoil’, drink off ‘to drink a large quantity of liquid’. This combination is characteristic of the primary lexical meaning of the component parts, which is lost to a certain degree also the elements, which do not perform any syntactic function in the sentence when taken individually as well as postverbs, which indicate aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of the verb – terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action; 3) verb + element with the meaning of direction constructions such as flow in (of liquid) ‘to move in’, lead out ‘to guide or bring (sb) out of place’. The elements with the meaning of direction as well as the adverbs retain their primary meaning. On the other hand, verb + element with the meaning of direction combinations behave as the verb + postverb ones. The component parts of both types of combinations can’t be separated (e.g.: He ate up his dinner  He ate his dinner. It is up (postverb); 4) verb + preposition combinations of the type run up the tree, see out (of) the window, etc. As concerns the difference between prepositions and postverbs it should be mentioned, that semantically the postverbs are more strongly related to the verb and preposition to the noun it precedes; phonetically the postverb is stressed in unempthatic speech in contrast to the prepositions and finally syntactically – “in cases when the verb is transitive the preposition always precedes the object” (Klijunaite, 2000:32-33). According to this differentiation, the postverb is considered as the derivational means modifying the meaning of the verb and forming one semantic whole with it. For this reason, the Vpv is treated as functionally equivalent to the word and gains the status of the analytic word, i.e. “a nominative sign equivalent to the word which, unlike the word, is lacking in the integrity of morphemes” (Nogina, 1977:2). Our analysis will be focused on the verbal combinations with the postverbs and elements denoting the meaning of direction, for they best reveal the main functions of the postverbs. For this reason the verbal combinations with the adverbs and prepositions will not be treated. Having identified the linguistic status of Vpv-s as derivational units it is expedient to define their position in the derivational system of the English verb. This aspect will be discussed further. 2. PHRASAL VERBS AS DERIVATIONAL UNITS The term “derivation” (cf. another term “word formation”) is used in linguistics to indicate the formation of new words from words that already exist in the language or “derivation” can be defined as “tracing of the origin of the word” (The Oxford Dictionary for International Business, 1998). Derivation can be: a) affixation, including prefixation and suffixation; b) conversion; c) compounding. As regards the postverbs, it has been observed in linguistics that they are very similar to the Indoeuropean prefixes, which go back to preverbal elements of adverbial character with locative meaning (Aničkov, 1961). Though, there are some formal differences between prefixes and postverbs, it can be presumed that there is a number of common features due to which the range of their functions coincides: 1) postverbs like prefixes can change the lexical meaning of the verbs, cf.; freeze ‘to make cold’  freeze out ‘to die of cold’; 2) both the postverbs and equivalent to them prefixes can change aspectual characteristics of the verb, for instance, turn the durative character of the verb into terminative, as in ring  ring out (A shot rang out and there was silence) or impart the meaning of certain mode of action to the verb, as in the oppositions blow  blow up (of wind) ‘to begin blowing’ (ingressive mode of action); send  send out (invitations to the party) ‘to send to many people’ (distributive mode of action); 3) postverbs, like prefixes, can also change the valency of the verb, cf.: cough  cough out a bone (iškosėti kaulą), or its lexical combinability, cf.: punch  punch out (a cigarette) (Klijunaite, 2004). The common point, which relates the postverbs, the prefixes is the main direction of the further evolution: “the loss of their primary directional meaning, the development in them of transferred meanings, the increasing number of verbal bases in conjunction with which both the prefixes and postverbs express the temporal-quantitative characteristics of the action, the tendency towards desemantizaion” (Klijunaite, 2004:66). In relation to this J.A. Zhluktenko (1954:108) asserts that “the postverbs, unlike phonemically identical adverbs of the type to sit out ‘to sit outside’, cannot be regarded as a part of speech because like a prefix, it has no morphological or syntactical independence, it merges the verb into one whole and performs in combination a derivation function”. Accordingly, verbs with postverbs can be treated as derivational units, i.e. the meaning of the Vpv results from the bilateral influence of the verb and postverb, while the latter, like affixes, serves as the derivational means. Thus, “It is possible to include derivation of verbs by means of postverbs, according to the pattern V + pv  Vpv as analytic derivation” (Klijunaite, 2000:37). This can be explained with the examples think  think out, press  press in, board  board up, etc. To conclude, in this work phrasal verbs will be viewed as derived from base verbs and analyzed in opposition with the latter, with the purpose of discovering the properties that distinguish them from their basis. 3. FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH POSTVERBS IN THE PLANE OF THE REGULAR CHANGE OF MEANING 3.1. POSTVERBS’ FUNCTIONS IN THE PLANE OF ASPECTUALITY In order to investigate the functions of postverbs in the plane of aspectuality, a theoretical background on the category of aspectuality is required. The functional-semantic category of aspectuality is one of the functional-semantic categories relevant to the verb. Aspectuality is usually mixed with the temporal category of the verbs (or grammatical aspect), for the reason that both are related to the notion of time (the commonest found in language are three: present, past and future) and provide temporal information. On the one hand, tense indicates the temporal location of a situation, i.e. its occurrence in relation to a specific reference time. On the other hand, aspect is related to the temporal shape of a situation, i.e. its internal temporal structure and ways of presentation, independent of its temporal location (Lyons, 1977:705). The flow of action and its repartition in time are either designated in the lexical meaning of the verb (then we deal with aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of verbs) or are conveyed by the grammatical forms of the verb. The first case points out the combinability of the aspectual meaning with the lexical meaning of the verb. For instance, the lexical meaning of tire out ‘to make some one completely tired’ denotes that the speaker views the action, denoted by the verb, as complete. Aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of verbs involve the nonconcrete meanings of terminativenes/durativeness and modes of action (MA), whereas grammatical expression of aspectuality is usually pointed to the category of aspect. In relation to the postverbs, the second element of the of the Vpv treated as a derivational unit perform a role of the derivational means, i.e. may change the aspect of the verb, e.g. stand stand up, eat  eat up, speak  speak out (here the second element marks the completeness or the beginning of the action) or intensify the meaning of the action, as in end  end up, talk  talk away (J.A. Zhluktenko, 1954). Conclusively, in the plane of desemantization postverbs lose their primary locative meaning and develop new functions in the sphere of the aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of the verb: they can be subdivided into terminatives or duratives, according to the presence or absence of a terminal point in the meaning of the verb, or impart the meaning of certain modes of action Since the grammatical expression of aspectuality is not essential, as Vpv-s do not differ from the base verbs, only the catagories of terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action on the plane of aspectual characteristic change will be discussed further in order to analyze the semantic functions of verbs with postverbs. 3.1.1. TERMINATIVENESS/DURATIVENESS The category of terminativeness/durativeness (cf. Russ terms “предельность/непредельность”) appoints a structural part of the functional-semantic category of aspectuality. In consequence with it, each verb can be defined as terminative or durative. The term “terminativeness” denotes that semantics of the verb conveys a certain terminal point (cf. Russ. “предел”), viz. the end point to which the action is aimed and comes to the end when the point is reached. According to E. Rainyte, “terminative verbs denote actions which can not develop beyond a certain inherent limit. Here belong such verbs: to come, to kill, to die, to fall, to sit down. By calling them terminative we mean that their lexical meaning implies some limit, when reaching the limit the action is exhausted and can’t continue any longer” (Rainyte, 1984:62). It is important to mention, that the terminal point in relation to the durative verbs is absent. “They have no inherent limits, their lexical meaning doesn’t imply any limit for the continuance of the action (to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to sit, to work, to stand, to walk)” (ibid). The examples bellow will draw a better understanding of the differentiation between terminative and durative verbs: I have fallen off the roof (terminative). He has worked for 3 hours already (durative). The first sample of terminativeness indicates the point, which is reached and there are no possibilities for continuing the action (I have fallen off the roof). Moreover, it is impossible to say “He continued falling off the roof”, because it can not be incorporated into the meaning of the sentence. What concerns the second sentence, on the contrary to the first, there are all possibilities to continue the action, because no limit has been reached and the phrase “and continued working” can be acceptable here and can be the natural development of the thought, cf.: I have worked for 3 hours already and continued working. Despite the main criterion, i.e. the presence or absence of a terminal point in the meaning of the verb, delimitation of terminative/durative verbs is not always evident. To educe the point, several test and classifications have been made and will be presented further. Zeno Vendler (1957) classified terminative/durative verbs into four categories: those that express: 1. Activity (cf. Russ. “глаголы деятельности”) 2. Accomplishment (cf. Russ. “глаголы исполнения дея ”) 3. Achievement (cf. Russ. “глаголы достижения”) 4. State (cf. Russ. “глаголы стативы”) Activities and accomplishments are distinguished from achievements and states in that the former allow the use of continuous tenses, while Achievements and States never occur in the continious form, cf.: I am pushing a cart (Activity); I am writing a letter (Accomplishment); * I am finding a treasure (Achievement); * I am knowing John (State). It is important to say that Activities and States never encountered in combination with the inclusive adverbial phrases of the type “in two hours”, whereas the Accomplishments and Achievements do. The following examples involve the mentioned differences: I pushed the car in two hours (Activity); * I wrote the letter in two hours (Accomplishment); I found the treasure in two hours (Achievement); * I knew john in two hours (State). The action of Accomplishments (He is writing a letter) has not reached its terminal point yet and is not completed. Actions are considered to be completed when having reached their end, which means that verbs of this type are terminative. This can also be shown by the sentence She is reading a book, which does not carry the meaning of the sentence where Past Indefinite is used: She read a book. The action of Activities (He is pushing a cart) can be terminated, but the meaning of the sentence He pushed a cart is true even if he does not finish pushing it. For this reason, Activities are defined as durative verbs. Achievements (I found a treasure) are undoubtedly referred to terminative verb, because action reached its terminal point. States (I know John) are considered to be durative, because the action does not have terminal point, which could be reached (Melig, 1985:227-249) In conclusion, all verbs can be either terminative, denoting the action which can not develop beyond a certain limit or durative, whose lexical meaning implies no limits or restrictions. This subdivision is made according to the presence or absence of a terminal point the lexical meaning of the postverbs. Terminative and durative verbs are further subdivided into semantic-derivational groups of verbs – modes of action, which form one more component of the functional-semantic category of aspectuality and can be described from theoretical point of view in the following section. 3.1.2. MODES OF ACTION In order to investigate the aspectual meanings expressed by the postverb in a more detail way, the postverb must deal with modes of action, i.e. the groups of verbs distinguished on the basis of certain temporal and quantitative characteristics of their meaning. The purpose of this section is to reveal what aspectual meanings in terms of MA-s are developed by the postverb when it does not retain its original meaning of direction in the derivatives. “Modes of action” (Further MA) is the English equivalent of the Russian term “спосабы действия”, which was first used by S. Agrel as the calque of the German “Aktionsart”, denoting all kinds of aspectual characteristics of the verb. Modes of action were distinguished as the aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of verbs, contrarily to the aspect, which was viewed as a category of grammatical character (Maslow, 1984:12). There are distinguished two approaches towards the semantics of MA in the general theory of aspectuality. The first one denotes that the modes of action are treated as semantic-derivational classes of verbs (Soboleva, 1984). According to the second approach MA-s are investigated as semantic classes of all verbs, both the derived and non-derived ones, which means the obligatory attribution of each verb to a certain MA. On the ground of the second approach, all MA-s fall into two groups: morphemically non-characterized, i.e. non-derivative, and morphemically characterized MA-s, which are derivational groups of verbs. Providing a theoretical view on the category of modes of actions, there have been distinguished the following modes of action: resultative, completive, terminative, distributive, ingressive, momentary and stative MA-s. The resultative MA includes Vpv-s denoting the action, which achieves the result, for instance, paint  paint out ‘to remove by covering with paint’; wash  wash out; scorch  scorch out, etc. The completive MA denotes the completion of the action since the greatest extent of the action has been reached. Most frequent it is signaled by the meaning ‘completely’ added to the base by the postverb, e.g.: Tire  tire out ‘to make someone completely tired’, Sell  sell out ‘to sell all the goods’, Die  die out ‘to cease living completely’, as in the sentence: Some tribes of Latin America died out many years ago. The terminative MA is another MA expressed by the postverb, which indicates the end point reached by the action. The meaning imparted by the postverb are ‘to the end’ or ‘until finished’, as illustrated with Vpv-s from the following oppositions: Wait  wait out (the storm) ‘to wait till the storm is finished’, Talk  talk out ‘to discuss the matter till the end’, Sit  sit out (performance) ‘to stay till the end’, as in the sentence: A strange man came and sat beside me and I sat out through the whole performance. The following MA includes the Vpv-s which denote the action consisting of separate acts involving successively a number (or all) of the objects or performed by a number (or all) of the subjects, e.g.: Hand (a sheet of paper) ‘to give’  hand out (sheets of paper) ‘to hand (i.e. to give) to each of several people; distribute, as illustrated with the sentence Hand out question papers as the students enter the examination room. The distributive mode of action includes the Vpv-s which denote the action consisting of separate acts involving successively a number (or all) of the objects of performed by a number (or all) of the subjects, e.g.: Hand (a sheet of paper) ‘to give’  hand out (sheets of paper) ‘to hand (i.e. to give) to each of several people; distribute’, as illustrated with the sentence Hand out the question papers as the students enter the examination room. The ingressive MA is characterized by the meaning ‘beginning of the action’. It consists mostly of Vpv-s denoting the beginning of some movement as a result of the addition of the postverb to a base with the meaning of ‘movement’, cf.: Pull ‘to move in the specified direction by pulling (carriages)’,  pull out (of a train) ‘to move away, leave a station’ (cf.: The train pulled along the line  we reached the station too late, just as the train was pulling out). A number of Vpv-s in the English language have the meaning of a momentary sudden action, e.g.: She called to her father for help  Jane called out when she saw her friend across the street; The child cried for its mother  “Be careful”, she cried out. The examples explain a momentary sudden action, which is performed by the Vpv. Whereas the base mean express the action, which continues in time. A number of durative Vpv-s express position of the object in space, its state, which is regarded by some linguists as the meaning of the statal MA (Maslov, 1983:13). The action expressed by these Vpv-s is static, permanent, which can be viewed, therefore, as the abstract meaning of the statal MA. These are Vpv-s denoting the stative MA: Stand  stand out ‘to be in a position further forward from sth.’, e.g. The pot has two handles standing out; Jut  jut out ‘to be in a position further forward than its surroundings’, as in the sentence The wall juts out here to allow room for the chimney. The definitions provided make it obvious that the meaning of direction ‘forward’ is also inherent in the semantics of these derivatives. On close inspection an observation can be made that this meaning is different from the meaning of direction. The Vpv-s related to movement of transference in space express the action developing in an outward direction, outside, while in the derivatives of type jut out the meaning ‘outside’ or ‘forward’ is the meaning of location rather than direction – it is static and denotes position of the object in space rather than action. Having analyzed a great number of V  Vpv oppositions, the conclusions can be drawn that in a number of English Vpv-s the postverb expresses the aspectual meanings of the verb in the plane of terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action. Such function is acquired by the postverb when it loses its primary meaning direction ‘outside from the inside’, which occurs usually when the postverb is added to the verbs that do not denote motion or transference in space. 3.2. POSTVERBS’ FUNCTIONS IN THE PLANE OF THE CHANGING OF THE LEXICAL MEANING OF THE VERB In this section the aspectuality of lexical meaning of the verb and its changes in the process of derivation will be analyzed. When the meaning of direction ‘outside from inside’ is lost in derivatives, the postverbs develop the abstract new meanings related to the aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of the verb. The aspectual characteristics of the English verb involve the category of terminativeness/durativeness and modes of action, which can be determined by the addition of the postverbs. In the course of the process of derivation, terminativeness/durativeness of the base verb can be modified or remain unchanged. It gives four reasonable possibilities, showing the change in the categories of terminativeness/durativeness, caused by the addition of the postverb. The examples below indicate the following ways: 1. The postverb changes the durative character of the base into terminative: Ring  ring out (the bells rang  A pistol shot rang out). The sentence above means that no more sound was heard after the shot rang out, i.e. the ringing did not continue, while in the first sentence there are no restrictions for the continuation of ringing. Other examples could be: Hear (a sound)  hear out (a sound) meaning ‘to listen to the end’. It can be better understood by sentences: I heard him speaking and Hear me out and only then choose. 2. The postverb maintains the durative character of the base: Look (at)  look out (He stood at the window and looked out (at the view). Both the derivative look out and the base look denote the position of the object in space and are durative, since no terminal point is implied in their semantics. 3. The terminative character of the base is retained Vpvs: Sell and sell out ‘sell all the things’ (I sold my old furniture to my friend John and The tickets were sold out); Dry and dry out ‘to dry completely’ (She left dishes to dry and Will his flooded ground ever dry out?); Give and give out ‘to give to several people’, as in the sentences: She gave me a book and Tom gave out the printouts to the listeners of the audience. 4. The postverb can not impart the durative meaning to the bases of terminative character, though it seems logically to be the fourth pattern (Klijunaite, 1987:83-84). The patterns discussed above denote that in most Vpv-s the postverb maintains or imparts the meaning of terminativeness to the base. In some cases the durative character of the base if retained, but no durative Vpv-s are produced from the bases of terminative character. 4. IDIOMATIC PHRASAL VERBS This section will deal with the idiomatizaion of Vpv-s’ lexical meaning. The motivation of the derivative can be not only direct but also figurative. Alongside with verbs with postverbs with the standard and regular shift in their meaning, another significantly large group of phrasal verbs stands out characteristic of idiomatization of their lexical meaning viewed as peripheral sphere of a semantic field [lexico-semantic group]. Two successive stages of the idiomatization of the analytic verbal meaning can be distinguished: 1. stage related with the phraseological unities 2. stage related with phraseological fusions. In the first case phrasal verbs are viewed as the result of the semantic derivation (motivation) on the basis of the figurative (metaphoric or metonymic) or non-figurative development (widening or narrowing) of the basic verbal meaning and are considered as instances of Vpv-s polysemy. In the second case the basic meaning changes in such an individual way that the semantic relation with the base can hardly be discerned. This is a group of verbs which meaning cannot be derived from the regular meanings of the verb and the postverb, i.e. which do not form a semantic opposition with their bases. The shift in their meaning is irregular, individual and therefore quite ambiguous to those who do not know the meanings of such formations, e.g.: Take ‘to get into one’s hand’ – take up ‘to interrupt (sb), usu. So as to correct him or disagree with what he says’ (e.g. You won’t get far with your statement before the chairman takes you up short!); tuck 'to thrust in the edge of (of a garment, sheet, etc.) so as to hold in place' → tuck up 'to hang (a person)' e.g. The hangman asked the poor creature's pardon and …then calmly tucked up the criminal, etc. In linguistic works these Vpv-s are termed as “idiomatic” (Spasov, 1996:48; Cowie, Mackin, 1975) or “phraseolocigal units” (Amosova, 1963:131; Kunin, 1970:251-252). In a part of the idiomatic Vpv-s the semantic relation with the verbs at their base is completely lost, as in trump up (a card or its player) ‘to defeat with a trump’ – trump up (accusations) ‘to invent in order to make someone appear guilty of rime’, pull ‘drag, draw’ - pull in ‘to reduce (coats)’, blitz ‘to make blitz attacks’ – blitz out ‘to relax’, e.g. After my work I really like to blitz out in front of TV. Such extreme cases can be treated as “derivational idioms”. Here the term “idiomatization” is used in a very narrow sense – as applied to the cases with the complete loss of the semantic relation (Klijunaite, 2000:35). It can be stated that all the Vpv-s as well as combinations of the type walk out with the second element, which has the meaning of direction, form the continuum according to the degree of the gradual loss of their primary meaning of direction with units, such as: take out ‘to produce (sth), as from container’ clearly established at the upper end and chew out ‘to scold someone’ appearing near the bottom, but with many items representing varying degrees of semantic and grammatical unity spaced out in between, such as put up prices ‘to increase, raise a cost’, etc. At the end of the continuum there are derivational idioms like peg (clothes on the rope) – peg out (because of heart attack) (ibid). CONCLUSIONS In this work aiming to define the range of semantic functions developed by the postverbs the following conclusions have been drawn: 1. Postverbs can be counted as derivational means as they modify the meaning of the verb and form the semantic integrity with it; accordingly, Vpv-s can be regarded as analytic words. 2. Performing the function of the derivational means, postverbs produce derivatives according to derivational model V  Vpv (e.g. smile  smile out, cry  cry out, buy  buy out,), which are the active and productive means of derivation in the system of English verbs. 3. In the plane of desemantization postverbs lose their primary locative meaning and change the lexical meaning as well as the aspectual characteristics of the lexical meaning of the verb: they can be subdivided into terminatives or duratives, according to the presence or absence of a terminal point in the meaning of the verb, or impart the meaning of certain modes of action. 4. The main function of the postverbs is that they can change the durativeness to terminativeness. 5. The pattern V  Vpv has a number of common features with other ways of verbal derivation, especially prefixation, in other Indo European languages, which have no derivational means, such as postverbs. 6. Postverbs make the base verbs more explicit or even change their meanings in an irregular, individual way. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Amosova 1963 – Амосова Н.Н. Основы английской фразеологии. – Л.: Изд-во Ленинг. ун-та, 1963. 2. Anickov 1961 – Аничков И.Е. Адверъальные послелоги в современном английском языке // Вопросы германской и романской филологии. – Пятигорск, 1951. 3. Gudavicius 1994 – Gudavičius A. Leksinė semantika. Vienetai. Ryšiai. Struktūros. Šiauliai: Šiaulių pedagoginis institutas, 1994. 4. Hiltunen 1983 – Hiltunen R. Phrasal Verbs in English Grammar Books Before 1980 // Neuphilol, Mitt., 1983, Ed. 84, H. 3 5. Kunin 1970 – Кунин А.В. Английская фразеология. – М.: Высш. Школа, 1970. 6. Klijunaite 2000 – Klijunaite I. Linguistic Status of English Phrasal Verbs. – Siauliai, 2000. 7. Klijūnaite 2004 – Klijunaite I. Field Structures in the Lexico-Semantic System of Language. – Siauliai, 2004. 8. Kubriakova 1972 – Кубрякова Е.С. Словообразование // Общее языкознание. Внутренняя структура языка. М.: Наука, 1972 9. Linder 1983 – Linder D.I. A Lexico- Semantic Status of English Phrasal Verbs. – Siauliai, 2000. 10. Lyons 1977 – Lyons J. Semantics. Cambridge University Press, 1977. 11. Maslov 1984 – Маслов Ю.С. Глагольный вид в современном болгарском литературном языке: Значение и употребление // Вопросы грамматики болгарского литературного языка. – М.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1959. 12. Melig 1985 – Мелиг Х.Р. Семантика предложение и семантика вида в русском языке: (К классификации глаголов Зино Вендлера) // Новое в зарубежной лингвистике. – M., 1984. 13. Nogina 1977 – Ногина И.В. О номинативных единицах типа go out в современном английском языке: Автореф. Дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1977. 14. Rainyte 1984 – Rainytė S. Anglų kalbos teorinė gramatika (morfologija). – V., 1984. 15. Soboleva 1984 – Соболева М.А. Способы глагольного действие и словообразовательные разряды глаголов // Слово в граматике и словаре. – М.: Наука, 1984. 16. Spasov 1966 – Spasov D. English Phrasal Verbs – Sofia: Naouka i Izkoustvo, 1966. 17. Vendler 1967 – Vendler Z. Linguistics and Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967. 18. Vendler 1967 – Vendler Z. Verbs and Times. The Philosophical Review, 1957. 19. Zhluktenko 1954 – Жлуктенко Ю.А. О так называемых “сложных глаголов” типа stand up в современном английском языке // Вопр. Языкознания, 1954, No 5. DICTIONARIES 1. Cowie, Mackin 1975 – Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English. Volume 1: Verbs with Prepositions and Particles. – Oxford Univ. Press, - 1975. 2. Longman 1986 – Courtney R. Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. – Russky Yazyk Publishers, Moscow, 1986. 3. Meriam – Webster’s Online Dictionary, 10th Edition. 4. Oxford Dictionary for International Business - Oxford Univ. Press, 1998. 5. Virtual Oxford Paperback Dictionary of Thesaurus. 6. Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary. – Springfield: Merriam, 1983.

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